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Furthermore, variability in physicochemical properties arising from differences in synthesis methodologies, and the lack of standardised characterisation protocols complicates reproducibility and regulatory evaluation [ Although CQDs have demonstrated substantial promise in imaging, sensing and drug delivery, advancement beyond preclinical research remains restricted by the scarcity of comprehensive toxicological data and large-scale validation, and addressing these challenges will require close interdisciplinary collaboration across chemistry, materials science, bioengineering, pharmacology, and clinical medicine to establish reliable synthesis methods, robust testing, and safety frameworks aligned with regulatory guidelines [174]
