Putrescine, produced both by human and bacterial cells 21 , is a product of amino acid catabolism 23 , either from ornithine or agmatine, the latter being a product of the decarboxylation of arginine (Fig
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Notably, the ferroptosis inhibitor Ferrostatin-1 exacerbated CGAs toxicity, while the inducer Erastin attenuated it (Supplementary Figure S2C), suggesting that the profound iron deficiency we describe disrupts fundamental metabolism in a manner distinct from, and prior to, the execution of classical ferroptosisa pathway CGA has been shown to inhibit in other contexts via Nrf2/GPX4 activation (Figures 5D,E), and a concentration of 800 M CGA induced significant ROS accumulation, activating the ROS-Erk1/2 stress pathway (Figure 7
doi: 10.3389/fphar.2025.1695200 Received 29 August 2025 Revised 19 October 2025 Accepted 30 October 2025 Published 13 November 2025 Volume 16 - 2025 Edited by Kshitij R